P. Gorazd Cetkovský, O.Carm.
Introduction
During his visit with us this year, P. Felix Maria Schandel, a Carmelite from Cologne, explained in detail the text of the rule that St. Albert of Jerusalem wrote for our first brothers on Carmel. P. Felix adhered to the interpretation developed by the Dutch Carmelite Kees Waajimen, which we have published quite thoroughly in the pages of our magazine from 2003 to 2007.
At one point in the text of the book, I encountered difficulties and could not understand it sufficiently. Because I could not pay more attention to it at the time, without openly admitting it, I did what we used to try in school: I imagined a little bit. It passed then, but this year during P. Felix's lectures, "it came out." Thanks be to God. Let us first recall the paragraphs of the rule that pertained to this. They describe the spiritual armor of a Carmelite.
18. Since a man’s life on earth is a trial and all who wish to live piously in Christ suffer persecution, and also your adversary the devil walks about like a roaring lion, seeking whom he may devour, strive earnestly to put on the whole armor of God, that you may be able to stand against the wiles of the enemy.
19. Gird your loins with the belt of purity; let your breast be armored with holy thoughts, for it is written: A holy thought shall preserve you. One should put on the breastplate of righteousness, that you may love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your strength, and your neighbor as yourself. At every opportunity, take the shield of faith, with which you will be able to quench all the fiery darts of the wicked one; for without faith it is impossible to please God. Also put on the helmet of salvation, that you may hope for salvation from the Savior himself, who will save his people from their sins. The sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God, let it dwell abundantly in your mouth and heart, and whatever you do, let it be done according to the word of the Lord.
What about the armor that protects the breast?
In explaining the 19th chapter of the rule, which describes the six parts of the spiritual armor, we translated Kees's explanation of the second of those six parts of armor as follows: The tunic (the inner garment, similar to a shirt) of men was (as opposed to the women’s tunic) shorter, reaching to about the knees, and was worn girded. It had no sleeves or very short ones. It fit closely to the body and over it a cloak and also a breastplate might be worn. It thus protected the body not only from the cold but also from the roughness of the armor. It represents the most intimate part of the garment and does not itself belong to the armament. It covered the body still beneath the belt and breastplate. St. Albert prescribes: “let your breast be armored with holy thoughts, for it is written: A holy thought shall preserve you.”
Although I tried my best to adhere to Kees Waajimen's interpretation, I still did not understand how it was with this part of armor or equipment. Is a shirt some kind of military gear? And when I chose the term tunic while translating into Czech, I led our imagination even more toward the idea that it was simply some shirt that the warrior wore under the breastplate. To that, friends, whom I asked at the time, even painted a picture for the magazine - according to our amateur estimation.
 |
Thus, in the end, a nice long shirt emerged. And just as boldly, we represented the breastplate as we imagined it. This year during P. Felix's lectures, it turned out that it had to be different. P. Norbert nimbly searched on the internet, urged me to continue, and our understanding became more precise. |
Breastplate
 |
We illustrated the breastplate in the magazine, composed of metal plates, which is often referred to as lamellar armor. It was used in the ancient Roman Empire from about the 1st century BC until the end of the 2nd century AD. Thus, at the time when St. Paul speaks of armor in Ephesians (6:14). |
At the same time, however, soldiers of the ancient Roman Empire also used chain mail, which allowed warriors greater freedom of movement. And this chain mail then completely predominated from the early Middle Ages until the mid-13th century. So when St. Albert mentions breastplate in the rule, he meant chain mail armor, created from a large number of iron rings. This was the "armor" of the medieval knight and crusader. Crafting it to be firm and effective was an art, obtaining one was not cheap, and the craftsmen who dealt with it were called armorers.
This illustration from the Crusader Bible (28v – detail) depicts a warrior removing his chain mail. The lower garment, which he wore under the armor, can be well seen.
The so-called Crusader Bible (also called the Morgan or Maciejowski Bible) remarkably depicts the clothing of warriors in the 13th century. It is a book originally composed solely of illustrations, originating from the circle of the French King Louis IX, created around the year 1250. It frequently depicts battles and violence, thus it is assumed that it was meant to encourage participation in the Crusades. Although it illustrates biblical stories, the figures are dressed in and use weapons and military techniques typical of the 13th century. In this image (The Rescue of Lot, folio 3), the surprised warriors (far right) are of interest to us. One is just putting on his breastplate, while the other has his padded garment (which will be discussed soon) merely thrown over his shoulders.
Belt around the hips
Although experts today prove that chain mail was not excessively heavy and that contemporary warriors could move agilely in it, the belt also served its important function. To prevent the chain shirt from hanging its entire weight on the warrior’s shoulders, it was girded around the hips, thus partially bearing its weight on the hips.
Chest armor
Under their chain mail, crusaders did not wear just any ordinary shirt, but a special garment that was indeed a legitimate part of their equipment, battle gear. In the rule, this part of the garment is not named directly (with a noun), but only its function is mentioned: to armor the breast. The word 'to armor' may evoke in us the image of solid armor, such as we know from our castles. However, this became common only in the course of the 13th century or perhaps in the following century. Its great advantage was that it could protect the warrior even from stabbing blows of spears and arrows, which chain mail reliably could not withstand. The makers of plate armor were called armorers. What part of the crusader's gear did St. Albert have in mind when he writes of “arming the breast”?
Variant 1: padded undergarment
According to historians, this “shirt” worn underneath the armor was made of wool or sewn from several layers of linen. It reached low below the belt and had sleeves that were either short just above the elbows or long down to the wrists. Its most important feature was that it was padded and quilted. Because of this, it was capable of reducing the danger of cutting and stabbing wounds on its own, even though this was mainly the task of the armor itself. By being worn under the armor, it supported its effectiveness.
In academic language, this garment is referred to as a gambeson, or it is simply called padded undergarment.1 It played a very important role. The armor protected the warrior from the blades of axes and swords, but it bent, meaning that the force of blows still impacted the body. Thus, according to period testimonies, warriors often suffered bruises and serious internal injuries, or even died, without their armor being breached. Whereas in combination with the gambeson, the armor provided a much more effective shield for the warrior. Moreover, the gambeson likely also protected the body from abrasions that the chain mail could cause.
Modern tests have shown that in combination with chain mail, the gambeson provided good protection even against medieval weapons used in ranged combat – arrows from bows and shots from crossbows. Although they sometimes pierced the armor, they mostly became lodged in the quilted shirt beneath it and did not seriously harm the warrior.
Poorer warriors, who could not afford chain mail, only wore the gambeson. In this case, it was reinforced and its surface was often treated in various ways, for example, it was soaked in tar so that in the form of some hard coating it would provide even greater protection. In Czech, it was referred to as 'prošívanice'.
Variant 2: upper padded garment or plate vest
|
|
From the 12th century, warriors wore a sleeveless linen cover over their chain mail, reaching to the knees (very similar to the scapular of our religious habit, only fitted later, stitched at the sides, and secured with a belt), referred to in the Czech context as varkoč. It is said that it originally aimed to protect crusaders from the heat of the sun hitting the armor. It also certainly served to identify individual knights since their coat often depicted their crest. A warrior of the Old Testament King David, the Hittite Uriah, is depicted in the Crusader Bible wearing a blue varkoč over chain mail (folio 41). |
Because chain mail was not sufficiently impenetrable and could not effectively protect against arrows, bows and crossbows were increasingly used. Sometimes, the gambeson was additionally used as armor over the chain mail as an upper padded garment. In this case, it either had short sleeves or was sleeveless.
And so from the mid-13th century, small plates of metal or other hard materials began to be attached to the back of the varkoč. Either side by side, or with slight overlap, so that no gaps remained between them and the garment did not hinder the warrior's movement. The plates were most often attached to the garment using rivets, whose heads were distinctly visible on the outer side and were often artistically executed. Thus, the varkoč evolved into a plate vest, a predecessor of later complete plate armor. If one of the oldest depictions of a plate vest has survived from around 1250, then when St. Albert prescribes: “let your breast be armored with holy thoughts”, he might indeed have had such a plate vest in mind. It is more closely associated with the idea of the breast, whereas the padded undergarment protected the entire torso and both arms.
This image from the Crusader Bible (folio 27) nicely depicts various types of garments: the standing warrior is wearing a light padded garment, in the middle sits a man in chain mail, and the man on the far right has something like a varkoč on his garment. This scene depicts David's arrival at Saul's army, in which his brothers fought (1 Sam 17:12–22).
Variant 3: double armor – just for the breast
Because during battle the enemy's attention was significantly focused on striking the warrior in the breast (which has a relatively large area, protects vital organs, does not swing as much in combat as limbs or head, and was not covered by a saddle like the warrior's abdomen), the protection of the chest was very simply reinforced by having the warrior attach another layer of chain mail to the breast, sewn onto the leather.
Alternatively, the chain mail covering the head and neck could be extended onto the breast into a sort of breastplate. Albert's words may very well apply to this also: “let your breast be armored”.
The Massacre of the Innocents,
Manuscript from Germany (circa 1350),
British Library, London, Shelfmark
Add. 17687 B.
Both of these forms of reinforcing chain mail on the breast correspond, in my opinion, best to what the words of St. Albert suggest in the rule. They suit it better than the idea of a padded undergarment or upper padded garment or plate vest.
Shield
 |
Regarding the type of shield (Greek: thyreon) that St. Paul had in mind in Eph 6:16 (whose words were a reference for St. Albert), a note in the translation of the New Testament by Ondřej Petrů describes it as a wide large shield protecting the warrior against stones and arrows when besieging fortresses and scaling walls. This image from the Crusader Bible (folio 10) shows us how warriors used their shields. |
It is noteworthy that when medieval heavy infantry began to use full plate armor, they reduced the size of their shields because they no longer needed them as much, and finally fought completely without a shield. Their armor was practically impervious to arrows from bows and crossbows. This reflects back on us why a shield was so important for a warrior in chain mail: because his armor could not protect him against arrows.
St. Albert's rule also speaks of arrows. They were probably considered particularly dangerous—somehow treacherous. Against arrows from a distance, all chivalry, physical strength, and skill in handling a sword—even if they were considerable—could do nothing. As we know from the story of Goliath and David...
From Psalm 46, we infer that when someone wanted to establish peace and destroy weapons, he broke the spears and burned shields. Therefore: shields were made from flammable materials, thus the enemy used fiery darts. In biblical times, shields were made of wood or woven from reeds, covered with leather, and anointed with oil (2 Sam 1:21; Is 21:5).
According to period testimonies, arrows were used to such an extent that some warriors had them on themselves after the battle like porcupine quills. And if fiery arrows were also used extensively, it must have been difficult for a warrior to keep an eye on his shield to ensure it was not catching fire (especially with the rest of the fighting he had to focus on). If his shield caught fire, the warrior remained dangerously exposed to the enemy's arrows, against which his armor only provided incomplete protection... St. Albert also mentions fiery darts according to Eph 6:16 (see also Heb 7:14).
What is the point of this journey into military history?
We likely have a reasonably correct idea about the other parts of armor that St. Albert mentions: helmet and sword. All this understanding of ancient and medieval equipment and armament has one benefit for us Carmelites: it sharpens our attention to the items St. Albert (following St. Paul) used as metaphors to describe the qualities and spiritual values that belong to the spiritual equipment of those who wish to live on Carmel.
Interpretation of Albert's instructions – first the reason for putting on the armor
Chapter 18 urges Carmelites to adopt the attitude of a soldier carefully equipped and armed for battle. Why? Albert gives three reasons, each based on a citation from Scripture.
- The earthly life of a person is a time of trial (Job 7:1), comparable in difficulty to military service (according to the Hebrew original of the book of Job).
- According to both experience and the words of St. Paul, pious Christians will always experience persecution (2 Tim 3:12).
- The cunning Tempter is always looking for how to attack and destroy us (1 Pet 5:8).
However, today a completely opposite view of life is constantly presented to us: advertising promises comfort and for a low price. Religion is seen as a pessimism that takes away the joy of life and throws one into constant fear of God. However, caution: on the contrary, some people succumb to fear of the modern world when they look at today’s problems, drowning in despondency or apathy. Who is right? Does Albert’s advice push us into an exaggerated sense of constant danger, or not?
No. Albert does not urge us to anything other than Christian vigilance, which the New Testament itself often encourages (e.g., in the parable of the ten virgins – Mat 25:1–13, etc.). Our crafty Enemy is indeed pleased when we believe we are completely safe.
From Lk 11:25 it becomes clear how the victor dealt with a defeated enemy and his armor: he took it away from him. And is it not true that the Enemy would most like to secretly take away our armor and our salvation? Therefore, he lulls us into the belief that there is no fight in our lives after all... A warrior who has his weapons lying dusty somewhere under the bed or in the attic will be easily defeated.
But our task is – according to the words of St. Albert, quoting St. Paul – to stand firm (Latin: stare). Maybe we could colloquially say: “to withstand” all the attacks of the Tempter which are tirelessly repeated. The image of a person standing firm is a favorite image in the writings of St. Cyprian, Bishop in Carthage, who died during Valerian's persecution in 258. “To stand” is a key term for Cyprian. It expresses the attitude necessary in times of persecution: “to remain standing,” “to defend oneself,” without giving in to the attacks of the devil who seeks to make a Christian “fall” or “apostatize”.2
This image is also already found in the New Testament. The Apostle encourages: “Be on your guard, stand firm in the faith,” (1 Cor 16:13) and: “Stand firm in the Lord...” (Php 4:1). “And therefore, the one who stands, let him beware that he does not fall!” (1 Cor 10:12 – ecumenical translation.) And similarly in Eph 6:14, in the text that St. Albert uses as a guide for writing these lines in the rule: “So stand firm!” Whoever stands firm is stable. The following chapter 19 gradually describes the six parts of the spiritual armor.
Belt around the hips – disciplined sexuality
While St. Paul writes that we should be “girded around the loins with truth” (Eph 6:14), St. Albert deviates here from him and prescribes: “Gird your loins with the belt of purity.” I believe that Albert intentionally modified this. For the first Carmelites to whom he wrote, moral conversion, which fosters a life of prayer, might have had primary importance over accepting the Christian faith in Jesus, the Savior (as opposed to Judaism and paganism, which were relevant in Paul’s time).
We know that sins against the sixth commandment are a strong temptation, and if we commit them, they embarrass us and internally outrage us more than other failures. These sins evoke a great sense of betrayal against God, isolation from others, anger against oneself or self-pity. They create a blockage in a person: an idea that one should not even try to seek closer contact with God or that it would even be a presumption and deceit against God. If we realize that the first Carmelites had a very adventurous journey from Europe to the Holy Land, perhaps spent in the ranks of the army, and that some of them likely, before their conversion, lived in marriage, including its intimate aspect, then we may not be far from the truth when we say that the celibate life for them may not have been easy. Albert does not dramatize their situation, but firmly and clearly prescribes as the first part of their equipment: to maintain discipline regarding sexuality.
Armor the breast – think on holy things
As the protection of the breast was reinforced aside from the armor by another part of the equipment (whatever it looked like), it is also important not only to avoid sin, even sinful thoughts, but to always, as much as possible, have a heart filled with “holy thoughts”, so that various temptations and other disintegrative influences do not find a place to settle in our innermost being.
A significant teacher of spiritual life, St. Theodore of Studium (+826), who was the head of a large community, reportedly spoke with each brother for a moment every evening, among other things asking them: “What were you thinking about today?” He helped them to recognize in time which thoughts could be harmful to them and which, on the contrary, they should cultivate and try to engage with. This is very relevant today, when so many people suffer from inner fears, depression, and even thoughtlessness. The unbelieving world, however, does not make room for God, but speaks only of positive thinking.
To armor the breast with holy thoughts is akin to another directive of the rule: “Let all remain in their cells or near them and day and night meditate on the law of the Lord and be vigilant in prayer unless otherwise occupied for just cause” (chapter 10).
Breastplate – righteousness
The word righteousness has a different meaning in the Bible than we are used to in common speech. This is well evidenced from 1 Sam 24:18: David shows King Saul that he did not seize the opportunity to kill him, and Saul responds to him: “You are more righteous than I. You repay good with good, but I have repaid you with evil.” In the language of the Bible, to be righteous means: to be such as God pleases. Righteousness is correctness, perfection, integrity in fulfilling God’s expectations.
According to St. Albert, this righteousness consists in fulfilling the two greatest commandments. In this, he sees the breastplate of righteousness: “that you may love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your strength, and your neighbor as yourself.” Righteousness is this double love.
Notice: the knight’s breastplate – chain mail – protected as much of the body as possible (unlike the lamellar armor from St. Paul’s time). The effort for righteousness concerns our entire existence, all areas of our lives. Holy thoughts are meant to be within, while righteousness is something from the outside, the observance of commandments that penetrates into the heart...
Shield – faith
In agreement with St. Paul’s text, St. Albert also considers faith to be a defensive shield that protects against the arrows of the Enemy. As mentioned before, a warrior without a shield could easily be wounded or killed before he could begin to fight directly. What kind of faith do Paul and Albert have in mind? I imagine: a devotion to Christ. Not a mere knowledge of the catechism, but an awareness: I belong to Christ and I want to live faithfully to him, in a relationship with him.
Helmet – salvation (trust in salvation)
The helmet protects the head – a very important organ. Injuries to the head are often very serious and sometimes fatal. (Not without reason was the obligation for cyclists to wear helmets instituted a few years ago.) Similarly, in spiritual warfare, our hope in salvation is of fundamental importance, trust that God will indeed accomplish his salvation for us. How can one fight vigorously without believing in the future, without a perspective? One will merely drag through life passively.
When St. Albert elaborates on St. Paul’s brief mention of the helmet of salvation, he uses the word derived from the root of salvation, to save, three times within one sentence: “that you may hope for salvation from the Savior himself, who will save his people from their sins.” Our task is to hope in salvation. Despite all our efforts, salvation is a gift from Jesus—the Savior. It is not the result of mere our own endeavors.
Sword of the Spirit – Word of God
The interpretation that the sword of the Spirit is the Word of God comes directly from St. Paul. When St. Albert urges us to let the Word of God “dwell abundantly in our mouths and hearts,” he quotes different words from St. Paul (Rom 10:8 according to Deut 30:14), but also recalls the custom of the desert fathers of “chewing” a short citation from Scripture throughout the day. The purpose was to let that word penetrate from the lips into the innermost being. Can we also find ways to hold onto this in today’s time?
The desert fathers used words of Scripture not only as spiritual nourishment but also as a weapon against eight kinds of evil thoughts.3 And from the closing sentence: “and whatever you do, let it be done according to the word of the Lord,” it is clear that for St. Albert, the Word of God is also the criterion for decisions.
The spiritual armor does not rust nor become outdated
Twelve centuries after the writing of the letter to the Ephesians, St. Albert used several slightly modified verses from it to demonstratively present to the first Carmelites what would be important in their eremitical life. Eight centuries after St. Albert, his words remain a good guide for us on how to “live in obedience to Jesus Christ and to serve him faithfully with a pure heart and a good conscience” (rule, chapter 2).
